The Ultimate Guide to Smart Contract DeFi Security Audits_ Unveiling the Layers
The Ultimate Guide to Smart Contract DeFi Security Audits: Unveiling the Layers
Introduction to Smart Contracts in DeFi
Decentralized Finance (DeFi) is revolutionizing the financial landscape, bringing forth a plethora of opportunities and challenges. At the heart of DeFi are smart contracts—self-executing contracts with the terms of the agreement directly written into code. While these contracts promise automation and transparency, they also introduce unique risks. A single vulnerability can lead to catastrophic financial losses, making a meticulous security audit indispensable.
Why Smart Contract Security Audits Matter
In the DeFi realm, security is not just a feature; it's a necessity. Smart contracts manage millions of dollars in assets, and any flaw can be exploited. A security audit is a thorough examination of the code to identify and rectify potential vulnerabilities. This process ensures that your smart contracts are robust, secure, and resilient against various attack vectors.
The Anatomy of a DeFi Smart Contract Security Audit
Initial Assessment
Before diving into the code, a comprehensive initial assessment is crucial. This involves:
Understanding the Business Logic: Grasping the core functionalities and intended operations of the smart contract. Identifying the Scope: Defining the areas to be audited—from code structure to interaction with other contracts. Risk Analysis: Evaluating potential risks and threat models specific to the DeFi environment.
Code Review
A code review is the backbone of any security audit. Here’s what it entails:
Static Analysis: Automated tools scan the code for common vulnerabilities like reentrancy attacks, integer overflows, and improper access controls. Dynamic Analysis: Testing the contract in a controlled environment to identify runtime vulnerabilities and unexpected behaviors. Manual Code Review: Skilled auditors manually inspect the code for nuanced vulnerabilities that automated tools might miss.
Cryptographic Audits
DeFi contracts often rely on cryptographic functions to secure transactions and manage keys. A cryptographic audit ensures:
Correct Implementation: Cryptographic algorithms are correctly implemented to prevent leakage of private keys or weak encryption. Key Management: Secure management and storage of cryptographic keys to prevent unauthorized access.
Interaction with Other Contracts
DeFi contracts frequently interact with other smart contracts. Ensuring secure interactions involves:
Dependency Analysis: Reviewing dependencies to ensure they are trustworthy and up-to-date. Inter-Contract Communication: Checking for vulnerabilities in the way contracts communicate, such as cross-contract calls that might lead to reentrancy.
Testing and Simulation
Extensive testing and simulation are pivotal in identifying vulnerabilities before deployment:
Unit Testing: Writing comprehensive unit tests to cover all code paths and edge cases. Fuzz Testing: Inputting random data to identify unexpected behaviors and crashes. Real-World Simulation: Deploying the contract on a testnet to simulate real-world conditions and interactions.
Final Report and Remediation
The culmination of the audit is a detailed report:
Vulnerability Assessment: A clear, prioritized list of identified vulnerabilities with severity levels. Recommendations: Practical and actionable steps to remediate vulnerabilities. Proof of Concept: Demonstrating how vulnerabilities can be exploited to validate the necessity of fixes. Best Practices: Guidelines to enhance the overall security posture of the smart contract.
Common Vulnerabilities in DeFi Smart Contracts
Understanding common pitfalls helps preemptively address them during an audit:
Reentrancy Attacks: Exploits where an attacker calls back into the contract before the current function execution has completed. Integer Overflows/Underflows: Vulnerabilities that occur when arithmetic operations exceed the maximum or minimum values allowed. Access Control Flaws: Inadequate checks on who can execute certain functions, leading to unauthorized access. Front-Running: Attackers manipulate transaction ordering to benefit from the contract’s actions. Unchecked Return Values: Ignoring the return values of external calls can lead to unexpected behaviors.
Tools and Platforms for DeFi Security Audits
Several tools and platforms can aid in conducting a thorough DeFi smart contract security audit:
Slither: An analysis framework for smart contracts that performs static analysis and detects vulnerabilities. MythX: A static analysis platform that specializes in detecting vulnerabilities in Ethereum smart contracts. Oyente: A tool for detecting certain classes of vulnerabilities, including reentrancy attacks. Echidna: A comprehensive fuzzer for Ethereum smart contracts, capable of finding complex bugs.
Conclusion
A smart contract DeFi security audit is not merely an added step but a critical necessity. As DeFi continues to grow, the stakes for security become even higher. By thoroughly vetting your smart contracts through rigorous audits, you not only protect your assets but also build trust within the DeFi ecosystem. Remember, a secure smart contract today paves the way for a more robust and reliable DeFi future.
The Ultimate Guide to Smart Contract DeFi Security Audits: Unveiling the Layers
Advanced Topics in DeFi Smart Contract Security
Formal Verification
Formal verification is an advanced method to mathematically prove that a smart contract adheres to its specifications. Unlike traditional audits, which find vulnerabilities, formal verification confirms the correctness of the code. This method involves:
Specifying Properties: Defining the properties and behaviors the smart contract should exhibit. Mathematical Proofs: Using formal methods to prove that the code meets these properties. Tools: Platforms like Coq, Isabelle, and Z3 can be used for formal verification.
Smart Contract Upgradeability
Upgradeability allows contracts to be modified post-deployment. This feature is powerful but fraught with risks. Ensuring upgradeability is secure involves:
Proxy Patterns: Using proxy contracts to delegate execution to an upgradeable logic contract. Versioning: Maintaining version control to track changes and ensure backward compatibility. Access Control: Implementing robust access controls to prevent unauthorized upgrades.
Oracles and External Data
Oracles are crucial for DeFi contracts to interact with the external world by fetching real-world data. Security concerns with oracles include:
Data Manipulation: Ensuring that the data provided by oracles is accurate and not manipulated. Single Points of Failure: Avoiding reliance on a single oracle to prevent downtime and data breaches. Auditing Oracles: Regularly auditing oracles to ensure they function correctly and securely.
Gas Optimization
Gas optimization is vital for cost-effective transactions on the Ethereum network. While optimizing for gas, it’s essential to:
Avoid Redundant Computations: Streamline code to reduce unnecessary operations. Efficient Data Structures: Use efficient data structures to minimize gas costs. Profile and Test: Continuously profile and test to find gas-saving opportunities without compromising security.
Auditing Smart Contracts for Interoperability
As DeFi grows, interoperability between different blockchains and protocols becomes more common. Ensuring secure interoperability involves:
Cross-Chain Communication: Securing channels for cross-chain transactions. Standard Compliance: Adhering to established standards like ERC-20 for tokens and interoperability protocols. Bug Bounty Programs: Engaging with the community through bug bounty programs to identify and fix vulnerabilities.
Case Studies and Real-World Examples
To illustrate the importance and impact of security audits, let’s delve into some real-world examples:
The DAO Hack
The DAO hack in 2016 was a turning point in the DeFi world. A reentrancy vulnerability led to the siphoning of millions of dollars. The incident highlighted the critical need for rigorous security audits. Post-hack, the community performed extensive audits and implemented robust access controls and checks to prevent such occurrences.
Compound Protocol
Compound, a leading DeFi lending protocol, conducts regular security audits and employs multiple layers of security checks. Their commitment to security has earned them a reputation for trust and reliability in the DeFi space.
Uniswap
Uniswap, one of the most popular decentralized exchanges, undergoes continuous security audits. Their use of automated tools and regular code reviews ensures the platform remains secure and reliable.
Future Trends in DeFi Security Audits
As DeFi evolves, so do the methods and tools for security audits:
AI and Machine Learning
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are increasingly being used to detect vulnerabilities. These technologies can analyze vast amounts of code and data to identify patterns and potential vulnerabilities.
Blockchain Forensics
Blockchain forensics involves analyzing blockchain data to identify breaches and understand attack patterns. Advanced forensic techniques can trace the flow of funds and identify the origin of attacks.
Decentralized Audit Networks
Decentralized audit networks leverage community-driven approaches to audit smart contracts. These networks can provide diverse perspectives and collective intelligence to uncover vulnerabilities.
Regulatory Compliance
With the growing regulatory scrutiny around DeFi, smart contracts will need to comply with various regulations. Audits will increasingly focus on ensuring compliance with legal and regulatory frameworks.
Conclusion
Smart contract DeFi security audits are an evolving field, continually adapting to new threats and challenges. By understanding the intricacies and adopting best practices, developers and auditors can create secure, reliable, and trustworthy DeFi applications当然，继续我们的深入探讨：
如何进行有效的智能合约安全审计
1. 选择合适的审计团队
选择经验丰富、有信誉的审计团队是确保智能合约安全的关键。团队应包括：
区块链开发人员：懂得如何编写和优化智能合约。 安全专家：熟悉常见的安全漏洞和攻击模式。 区块链专家：了解区块链的底层技术和特性。 法律顾问：确保合约符合相关法律法规。
2. 制定详细的审计计划
制定详细的审计计划，明确审计的范围、目标和时间表。审计计划应包括：
合约的功能和目标：理解合约的设计初衷和预期行为。 审计方法：定义使用的静态分析、动态分析、形式验证等方法。 审计范围：明确审计的代码范围和交互模块。
3. 静态分析
静态分析是一种在不运行代码的情况下检查代码的方法。常见的静态分析工具包括：
Slither：一款用于Ethereum智能合约的静态分析工具，能检测常见漏洞。 Mythril：专注于发现复杂的漏洞，如递归攻击和气体短缺问题。 Oyente：一款旧的、但有效的检测重入漏洞的工具。
4. 动态分析
动态分析在真实或模拟的区块链环境中运行合约，检测运行时的异常行为。动态分析工具包括：
Echidna：一个全面的Ethereum智能合约的随机测试框架。 Fork Ethereum Testnet：在测试网络上运行合约，模拟真实交易环境。 Insomnia：结合静态和动态分析，提供全面的安全测试。
5. 形式验证
形式验证通过数学证明确保代码符合特定的规范和行为。这种方法非常耗时，但能提供高度确定的安全保证。
Coq：一种构建数学证明的工具，用于验证智能合约的正确性。 Isabelle：一种基于证明的编程语言，支持形式验证。
6. 代码审查
代码审查是由有经验的开发人员手动检查代码，识别潜在问题和改进建议。这通常包括：
代码风格和最佳实践：确保代码符合行业标准。 安全漏洞：寻找常见的安全缺陷，如重入攻击、整数溢出等。 性能问题：优化代码以减少气体消耗，提高效率。
7. 社区和Bug Bounty Program
利用社区资源和bug bounty program，可以从外部安全专家那里获取反馈。这种方法不仅可以发现潜在漏洞，还能提升项目的声誉。
8. 持续监控和定期审计
智能合约的安全不仅仅在部署时是问题，还需要持续监控和定期审计。使用工具和服务来实时监控合约活动，并在每次升级或新功能添加后进行审计。
常见的智能合约漏洞
1. 重入攻击
重入攻击是一种攻击者在合约执行期间多次调用合约的现象，通常通过重新调用合约来提取资金。这种攻击在以太坊上尤其常见。
2. 整数溢出/下溢
整数溢出和下溢是指在数学运算中，结果超出了变量的存储范围，导致错误的行为。这种漏洞可以被攻击者利用来执行不可预期的操作。
3. 气体短缺
气体短缺是指在执行交易时，由于计算量过大而没有足够的气体供应，导致交易失败。
4. 访问控制
访问控制漏洞发生在合约未能正确限制对特定函数的访问，使得攻击者能够执行未授权操作。
5. 回溯攻击
回溯攻击是一种攻击者在合约的执行过程中不断提交交易，试图操控合约的状态。这种攻击通常结合其他漏洞使用。
总结
智能合约的安全性对于整个区块链生态系统的稳定和可信度至关重要。通过选择合适的审计团队、制定详细的审计计划、采用多种审计方法、持续监控等措施，可以有效地确保智能合约的安全。了解常见的漏洞和如何防范它们，也是保护智能合约的重要一环。
The digital revolution has fundamentally reshaped our world, and at its core lies a technology poised to redefine our very concept of value and earning: blockchain. Beyond the often-hyped headlines of volatile cryptocurrencies, blockchain offers a robust, transparent, and secure infrastructure that's quietly ushering in an era of "earning smarter." This isn't just about getting rich quick; it's about fundamentally rethinking how we participate in the global economy, gaining greater control over our assets, and unlocking new avenues for passive income and wealth creation.
Imagine a financial system that doesn't rely on intermediaries like banks or brokers, a system where transactions are direct, verifiable, and immutable. That's the promise of blockchain. At its heart, a blockchain is a distributed, immutable ledger that records transactions across many computers. Each "block" of transactions is cryptographically linked to the previous one, creating a chain that is virtually impossible to alter without the consensus of the network. This inherent transparency and security are the bedrock upon which smarter earning strategies are built.
One of the most immediate and accessible ways blockchain is enabling smarter earning is through the burgeoning world of cryptocurrencies. While early adopters might have focused on Bitcoin as a speculative asset, the landscape has evolved dramatically. We now have thousands of cryptocurrencies, each with unique use cases and potential. Beyond simply buying and holding, savvy individuals are exploring "staking" and "yield farming." Staking involves locking up your cryptocurrency holdings to support the operation of a blockchain network, earning rewards in return. It’s akin to earning interest in a traditional savings account, but often with significantly higher potential returns, and without the need for a bank. Yield farming, a more advanced DeFi (Decentralized Finance) strategy, involves providing liquidity to decentralized exchanges and lending protocols, again, earning rewards for facilitating these transactions. These are not just passive income streams; they represent an active participation in the new digital economy.
But the reach of blockchain extends far beyond just digital currencies. The concept of "smart contracts" is a game-changer. These are self-executing contracts with the terms of the agreement directly written into code. They run on the blockchain, automatically executing actions when predefined conditions are met. Think of it as a digital escrow that never sleeps and never errs. This has profound implications for various industries. For freelancers, smart contracts can automate payment upon project completion, eliminating payment disputes and delays. For artists and creators, they can ensure automatic royalty payments on secondary sales of their digital work. This eliminates the need for trusted third parties, reducing costs and increasing efficiency, and thus, smarter earning for all involved.
The rise of Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) is another powerful testament to blockchain's ability to create new earning opportunities. While often associated with digital art, NFTs are unique digital assets that represent ownership of a specific item, whether it's a piece of art, a collectible, a virtual land parcel, or even a music track. Creators can mint their work as NFTs, selling them directly to a global audience and retaining a percentage of future sales through smart contracts. Collectors and investors can then trade these NFTs, potentially seeing their value appreciate over time. Furthermore, NFTs are being integrated into gaming and virtual worlds, allowing players to earn in-game assets that can be traded for real-world value. This is democratizing ownership and creating entirely new economic models for digital content and experiences.
Beyond individual opportunities, blockchain is also empowering decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs). These are organizations governed by code and community consensus, rather than a central authority. Members, often token holders, can vote on proposals, contributing to the direction and development of the project. By participating in DAOs, individuals can earn tokens for their contributions, whether it's developing code, marketing, or community management. This model fosters collective ownership and rewards active participation, allowing individuals to earn a stake in projects they believe in.
The barrier to entry for participating in these blockchain-based earning opportunities is rapidly diminishing. While initial understanding might seem daunting, the ecosystem is maturing with user-friendly wallets, exchanges, and platforms. Education is key, and the wealth of information available online, from tutorials to expert analyses, is constantly growing. The ability to earn smarter isn't reserved for tech wizards; it's becoming accessible to anyone willing to learn and adapt. We are witnessing a shift from being passive consumers of financial services to active participants in a decentralized economy, where our engagement and contributions are directly rewarded. This is the dawn of a new era, where financial empowerment is within reach, driven by the innovative power of blockchain.
The shift towards earning smarter with blockchain is not merely a technological upgrade; it's a paradigm shift in how we perceive value, ownership, and participation in economic activities. It’s about moving from a system that often feels opaque and exclusionary to one that is increasingly transparent, accessible, and rewarding for those who engage with it intelligently. The core of this transformation lies in the decentralized nature of blockchain, which dismantles traditional gatekeepers and empowers individuals to interact directly, securely, and efficiently.
Consider the concept of digital ownership. Before blockchain, owning digital goods was often akin to renting. You might have purchased a digital song or an e-book, but true ownership, the ability to resell or transfer it freely, was typically restricted. NFTs change this paradigm entirely. They provide verifiable proof of ownership for unique digital assets. This has opened up entirely new markets for creators and collectors. An artist can now sell a piece of digital art and, through an NFT’s smart contract, receive royalties every time that artwork is resold. This fundamentally alters the creator economy, allowing artists to capture ongoing value from their work, a concept previously almost impossible in the digital realm. Similarly, collectors can invest in digital assets they believe will appreciate, becoming stakeholders in burgeoning digital markets.
The financial sector, often perceived as a complex and exclusive domain, is perhaps where blockchain's impact on earning smarter is most profound. Decentralized Finance, or DeFi, is a rapidly evolving ecosystem of financial applications built on blockchain technology. DeFi aims to recreate traditional financial services – lending, borrowing, trading, insurance – without intermediaries. For individuals, this means access to financial products and services that might have been previously unavailable or prohibitively expensive. For example, instead of relying on a bank to earn interest on savings, one can participate in DeFi lending protocols, often earning significantly higher Annual Percentage Yields (APYs). This requires a degree of due diligence, of course, understanding the risks involved, but the potential for greater returns by directly participating in the financial ecosystem is undeniable.
Furthermore, DeFi enables peer-to-peer lending and borrowing. Individuals can lend their crypto assets to others and earn interest, or borrow against their crypto holdings without needing to undergo lengthy approval processes. This increases capital efficiency and provides liquidity in ways that traditional finance struggles to match. The collateralization process, often done with crypto, is transparent and automated through smart contracts, reducing counterparty risk. This is earning smarter because it bypasses the overhead and profit margins of traditional financial institutions, allowing more of the value generated to flow directly to the participants.
Another crucial aspect of earning smarter with blockchain is through active participation in networks. Beyond just staking, many blockchain projects reward users for contributing to the network in various ways. This can include running nodes, which help validate transactions and secure the network, or providing data for decentralized applications. These activities, often referred to as "Proof-of-Contribution" or similar consensus mechanisms, allow individuals to earn native tokens of the project, effectively being compensated for their time, resources, and expertise in building and maintaining the decentralized infrastructure.
The concept of "tokenization" is also transforming asset ownership and earning potential. Nearly any asset, from real estate and stocks to intellectual property and even fractional ownership of expensive items, can be represented as a digital token on a blockchain. This allows for fractional ownership, meaning multiple individuals can own a share of a high-value asset, making investments more accessible. It also enables greater liquidity for traditionally illiquid assets, as these tokens can be traded more easily on secondary markets. For instance, owning a token representing a fraction of a rental property could generate passive income through rental yields distributed directly to token holders. This democratizes investment and opens up new avenues for earning by making previously inaccessible assets available to a wider audience.
The learning curve, while present, is an investment in future earning potential. The more one understands the underlying technology, the economics of different blockchain protocols, and the evolving landscape of decentralized applications, the better equipped they are to identify and capitalize on opportunities. This isn't just about financial returns; it's about gaining a deeper understanding of digital economics, ownership, and governance in a world increasingly shaped by these technologies. The act of learning itself becomes a form of smarter earning, as knowledge translates into more informed decisions and a greater capacity to navigate the opportunities presented by blockchain.
The future of earning is being decentralized, and blockchain is the engine driving this transformation. It’s about empowering individuals, fostering innovation, and creating a more equitable and accessible global economy. By understanding and engaging with these technologies, we can move beyond traditional earning models and unlock a world of smarter, more rewarding financial possibilities. The journey is ongoing, but the destination is a future where financial empowerment is not a privilege, but a readily available reality for all.
The narrative around blockchain technology has often been dominated by the speculative frenzy of cryptocurrencies. However, beneath the surface of volatile price charts lies a profound shift in how we can earn, manage, and grow our wealth – a shift towards "earning smarter." This isn't about chasing ephemeral gains; it's about understanding and leveraging the fundamental architectural changes that blockchain introduces to the global economy, moving towards greater autonomy, transparency, and efficiency in our financial lives.
One of the most significant ways blockchain enables smarter earning is through the democratization of finance via Decentralized Finance (DeFi). Traditional finance operates on a system of intermediaries – banks, brokers, and other institutions – that facilitate transactions but also add layers of cost, complexity, and control. DeFi seeks to disintermediate these processes, using blockchain and smart contracts to create open, permissionless, and transparent financial services. For the average individual, this translates into unprecedented access to earning opportunities.
Consider the concept of lending and borrowing. In DeFi, instead of depositing money into a bank account and earning a modest interest rate, you can lend your crypto assets to a decentralized lending protocol. These protocols pool user deposits and make them available for borrowing. In return for providing liquidity, you earn interest, often at rates significantly higher than traditional savings accounts. The risk is mitigated through over-collateralization and transparent smart contract logic, rather than reliance on a central authority. Similarly, individuals can borrow assets by providing their own crypto as collateral, again, all facilitated by code rather than lengthy credit checks. This direct participation in the financial ecosystem allows for a greater share of the generated value to flow to the users, hence, earning smarter.
Yield farming and liquidity mining represent more advanced, yet increasingly popular, strategies within DeFi. These involve providing liquidity to decentralized exchanges (DEXs) or other DeFi protocols. When you deposit a pair of tokens into a liquidity pool on a DEX, you enable others to trade those tokens. In return for providing this crucial service, you earn a portion of the trading fees generated by that pool, and often, additional rewards in the form of the protocol's native token. While these strategies can offer very high Annual Percentage Yields (APYs), they also come with a higher degree of complexity and risk, including impermanent loss and smart contract vulnerabilities. Nevertheless, for those who understand the mechanics, they offer a potent way to earn passive income on idle assets.
Beyond active financial participation, blockchain also empowers earning through engagement with networks. Many blockchain projects are built on the principle of community governance and active participation. By holding the native tokens of a project, individuals can often stake them, not just to secure the network but also to earn rewards. This is the core of "Proof-of-Stake" consensus mechanisms. Staking is akin to earning dividends for being a shareholder in a company, but here, you're a stakeholder in a decentralized network, contributing to its stability and growth. The rewards are directly tied to your commitment and the network's success.
Furthermore, some projects are moving towards "Proof-of-Contribution" or similar models, where users are rewarded for actively contributing to the ecosystem in various ways. This could include bug bounties for developers, content creation for marketing, community moderation, or even simply engaging with decentralized applications. These models aim to incentivize a wider range of participation, allowing individuals to earn based on their skills and time, rather than solely on capital investment. This broadens the scope of who can earn within the blockchain space, moving beyond purely financial contributions.
The rise of Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) has unlocked entirely new avenues for creators and collectors to earn. For artists, musicians, writers, and other creators, NFTs offer a way to tokenize their digital work, proving ownership and authenticity on the blockchain. This allows them to sell their creations directly to a global audience, bypassing traditional intermediaries that often take significant cuts. Crucially, smart contracts embedded within NFTs can be programmed to automatically pay the original creator a percentage of every subsequent resale – a form of perpetual royalty that was previously unattainable in the digital world. This is a monumental shift for creators, offering a sustainable income stream from their intellectual property.
For collectors and investors, NFTs represent a new asset class. While the market has seen its share of speculative bubbles, the underlying technology enables ownership of unique digital or even physical assets. As the utility of NFTs expands beyond digital art to include things like event tickets, in-game items, virtual real estate, and even fractional ownership of luxury goods, their earning potential grows. By acquiring NFTs that are likely to appreciate in value or generate ongoing utility (like access to exclusive communities or in-game advantages), individuals can build wealth. The ability to easily trade these unique assets on secondary markets further enhances their liquidity and potential for capital appreciation.
The concept of tokenization extends beyond NFTs to represent ownership of a wider array of assets. Real estate, for example, is beginning to be tokenized, allowing individuals to invest in fractional ownership of properties. This lowers the barrier to entry for real estate investment, making it accessible to a broader range of individuals. Rental income generated by these properties can then be distributed directly to token holders via smart contracts, creating a passive income stream. Similarly, stocks, bonds, and even intellectual property rights can be tokenized, increasing liquidity and creating new investment and earning opportunities.
Navigating the world of blockchain for smarter earning requires a commitment to learning and adaptability. The technology is still nascent, and the landscape is constantly evolving. Understanding the risks associated with smart contracts, market volatility, and regulatory uncertainty is paramount. However, the potential rewards for those who invest the time to educate themselves are substantial. The tools and platforms are becoming more user-friendly, with intuitive interfaces and clear guides that lower the technical barrier.
Ultimately, earning smarter with blockchain is about reclaiming agency over one's financial future. It’s about moving from a passive recipient of financial services to an active participant in a decentralized, transparent, and potentially more rewarding global economy. It’s about understanding that your engagement, your capital, and your contributions can have a direct and tangible impact on your earning potential. The future of finance is being rewritten, and blockchain provides the pen for anyone willing to learn how to write.
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